Meta-analytical model of the relationship between learning motivation, self-efficacy, and academic achievement in online learning

Abstract

The transformation of global education towards e-learning poses challenges to students' motivation and self-efficacy, impacting inequalities in academic achievement. A number of studies indicate that the relationship between motivation, self-confidence, and achievement remains complex and warrants further investigation. This study conducted a meta-analysis to assess the strength of the relationship between motivation, self-efficacy, and academic achievement in the context of digital learning. By analyzing 52  recent studies (2004–2025), we used a randomized effects model to account for heterogeneity between studies. The correlation coefficient reported in each study was converted to Fisher's Z to normalize the distribution of effects. Subsequently, the meta-analytic SEM was performed to test the self-efficacy mediation model. The results of the meta-analysis showed that the combined correlation between motivation and self-efficacy (r = 0.52) and motivation and academic achievement (r = 0.44) exhibited a moderate to strong ffect. The meta- structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis confirmed that self-efficacy mediates a partial influence of motivation on Academic Achievement (β indirect = 0.355, 36% of the total influence). Theoretically, these results strengthen social cognitive theory (Bandura) and self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan) in the field of e-learning. Practically, the results suggest that teachers and institutions should develop interventions that increase students' intrinsic motivation and self-confidence (e.g., through autonomy-supporting learning) and support educational policies that incorporate non-cognitive psychological indicators into the curriculum. This study provides a more accurate estimate of average effects and supports the development of the theory and practice of digital education based on cross-cultural evidence.

Keywords
  • Academic Achievement
  • Learning motivation
  • Self-efficacy
  • Meta-structural equation modelling
Lisensing Information
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References
  1. Abidarda, Y., Haryadi, R., Kalimantan, I., Arsyad, M., & Banjari, A. (2024). Merdeka Belajar: A Study of the Pros and Cons for Education in Indonesia. Indonesian Counseling and Psychology, 4(2), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.24114/icp
  2. Akomolafe, M. J., Ogunmakin, A. O., & Fasooto, G. M. (2013). The Role of Academic Self-Efficacy, Academic Motivation and Academic Self-Concept in Predicting Secondary School Students’ Academic Performance. Journal of Educational and Social Research. https://doi.org/10.5901/jesr.2013.v3n2p335
  3. Aslan, A. E., & Kirikkanat, B. (2013). Achievement and Motivation: A Different Perspective on Familiar Concepts. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 106, 308–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.036
  4. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. In W.H Freeman and Company New York (Vol. 43, Issue 9). Article Retrieved from https://books.google.co.id/books?id=eJ-PN9g_o-EC&printsec=frontcover
  5. Boe, O., Säfvenbom, R., Johansen, R. B., & Buch, R. (2018). The relationship between self-concept, self-efficacy, and military skills and abilities. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 17(10), 18–42. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.17.10.2
  6. Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V, Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons. Article Retrieved from https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Introduction+to+Meta-Analysis%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781118920789
  7. Bozzato, P. (2024). The Future Orientation of Italian Adolescents in Post-Pandemic Times: Associations with Self-Efficacy and Perceived Academic Achievement. Education Sciences, 14(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14020170
  8. Broadbent, J. (2016). Academic success is about self-efficacy rather than frequency of use of the learning management system. In Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (Issue 4). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.2634
  9. Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007
  10. Celcima, D., Osmani, F., Bardhi, E. K., & Icka, E. M. (2024). The Relationship Between Academic Motivation And Self-Efficacy In Undergraduate Students: Kosovo Case. Revista de Gestao Social e Ambiental, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.24857/rgsa.v18n1-193
  11. Çetin, B. (2015). Academic Motivation And Self-Regulated Learning In Predicting Academic Achievement In College. In Journal of International Education Research-Second Quarter (Vol. 11, Issue 2). https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v11i2.9190
  12. Chang, Y. C., & Tsai, Y. T. (2022). The Effect of University Students’ Emotional Intelligence, Learning Motivation and Self-Efficacy on Their Academic Achievement—Online English Courses. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.818929
  13. Chazan, D. J., Pelletier, G. N., & Daniels, L. M. (2022). Achievement Goal Theory Review: An Application to School Psychology. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 37(1), 40–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735211058319
  14. Cohen, J. (1988). Set correlation and contingency tables. Applied psychological measurement, 12(4), 425-434.
  15. Dari, B. U., & Putro, N. H. P. S. (2021). Correlation Between Self-Efficacy and Motivation of English Teachers, Towards Students’ Achievement in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Jurnal Pendidikan Progresif, 11(1), 77–87. https://doi.org/10.23960/jpp.v11.i1.202107
  16. Dehalwar, K., Shashikant, &, & Sharma, N. (2023). Exploring the Distinctions between Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods. Think India Journal, 27(7). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10553000
  17. Dogan, U. (2015). Student engagement, academic self-efficacy, and academic motivation as predictors of academic performance. Anthropologist, 20(3), 553–561. https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2015.11891759
  18. Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational Beliefs, Values, and Goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53(Volume 53, 2002), 109–132. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153
  19. Efron, B. (2010). Correlated z -values and the accuracy of large-scale statistical estimates. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 105(491), 1042–1055. https://doi.org/10.1198/jasa.2010.tm09129
  20. Ejiobi-Okeke, B. I., & Samuel, N. N. C. (2021). Achievement Motivation And Locus Of Control As Predictors Of Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievement In Chemistry In Enugu State,Nigeria. 11, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.9790/7388-1104052734
  21. Espinosa, P., Song, B., & Clemente, M. (2025). Ex malo bonum: Dark traits and higher order values association with self-efficacy, motivation to learn languages and academic grades. Acta Psychologica, 261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105797
  22. Fu, X., Xia, L., Chen, L., Zhong, M., Liu, Y., He, W., Luo, B., Chen, L., Fan, Y., & Qin, H. (2025). Organizational innovation climate and nurses’ innovation behavior in a specialized oncology hospital: the chain mediation of achievement motivation and creative self-efficacy. BMC Nursing, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-025-03595-8
  23. Getenet, S., Cantle, R., Redmond, P., & Albion, P. (2024). Students’ digital technology attitude, literacy and self-efficacy and their effect on online learning engagement. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00437-y
  24. Honicke, T., Broadbent, J., & Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M. (2020). Learner self-efficacy, goal orientation, and academic achievement: exploring mediating and moderating relationships. Higher Education Research and Development, 39(4), 689–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1685941
  25. Huang, D., Reeve, J., Jang, H. R., Marsh, H. W., Dicke, T., & Cheon, S. H. (2025). Teaching with confidence: How a skill-based intervention develops teacher self-efficacy and improves educational outcomes. Teaching and Teacher Education, 167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2025.105202
  26. Huang, X., Gao, Y., Chen, H., Zhang, H., & Zhang, X. (2022). Hospital Culture and Healthcare Workers’ Provision of Patient-Centered Care: A Moderated Mediation Analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.919608
  27. Hwang, S. (2024). Differences in Academic Persistence Intentions among STEM Undergraduates in South Korea: Analysis of Related and Influencing Factors. Education Sciences, 14(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14060577
  28. Ince, M. (2023). Examining the Role of Motivation, Attitude, and Self-Efficacy Beliefs in Shaping Secondary School Students’ Academic Achievement in Science Course. Sustainability (Switzerland), 15(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/su151511612
  29. Joshi, D. R., Khanal, J., Chapai, K. P. S., & Adhikari, K. P. (2025). The impact of digital resource utilization on student learning outcomes and self-efficacy across different economic contexts: A comparative analysis of PISA, 2022. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2025.100443
  30. Khodadad, M., & Kaur, J. (n.d.). Causal Relationships between Integrative Motivation, Self-Efficacy, Strategy Use and English Language Achievement. In The Southeast Asian Journal of English Language Studies (Vol. 3, Issue 3). Article Retrieved from https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/ssllt/article/view/34236
  31. Kolhar, M., Kazi, R. N. A., & Alameen, A. (2021). Effect of social media use on learning, social interactions, and sleep duration among university students. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 28(4), 2216–2222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.01.010
  32. Korpershoek, H., Kuyper, H., & van der Werf, G. (2015). Differences in students’ school motivation: A latent class modelling approach. Social Psychology of Education, 18(1), 137–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-014-9274-6
  33. Kranjec, E., & Bakračevič, K. (2023). Differences in Self-Regulated Learning Between Gifted Students, Students with Special Needs and Other Students in Slovenian Schools. International Journal of Instruction, 16(3), 505–518. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2023.16327a
  34. KULA, S. S. (2022). The Predictive Relationship between Pre-Service Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Belief, Attitudes towards Teaching Profession and Teaching Motivation. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 9(4), 705–718. https://doi.org/10.33200/ijcer.1068573
  35. Lebuda, I., Hofer, G., & Benedek, M. (2025). Determinants of creative metacognitive monitoring: creativity, personality, and task-related predictors of self-assessed ideas and creative performance. Metacognition and Learning, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-025-09432-2
  36. Li, J., Ma, T., & Lee, C. S. (2025). The dual mediating effect of self-efficacy and motivation between conscientiousness and academic performance of university students in China: the moderated mediation effect of gender. Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1538200
  37. Li, J., Wang, C., Zhao, Y., & Li, Y. (2024). Boosting Learners’ Confidence in Learning English: Can Self-Efficacy-Based Intervention Make a Difference? TESOL Quarterly, 58(4), 1518–1547. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3292
  38. Li, L., Liu, Y., Peng, Z., Liao, M., Lu, L., Liao, H., & Li, H. (2020). Peer relationships, motivation, self-efficacy, and science literacy in ethnic minority adolescents in China: A moderated mediation model. Children and Youth Services Review, 119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105524
  39. Li, X., Pu, R., & Phakdeephirot, N. (2022). The influence of achievement motivation on college students’ employability: A chain mediation analysis of self-efficacy and academic performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.972910
  40. Liu, D., Lin, Y., Jin, Y., Li, Z., Fu, K., & Yang, R. (2025). Impacts of proactive personality on students’ academic achievement: a moderated mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1596032
  41. Martin, H., Craigwell, R., & Ramjarrie, K. (2022). Grit, motivational belief, self-regulated learning (SRL), and academic achievement of civil engineering students. European Journal of Engineering Education, 47(4), 535–557. https://doi.org/10.1080/03043797.2021.2021861
  42. Melese, F., Bersissa, A., & Yadeta, D. (n.d.). Academic Motivation, Self-Regulated Learning, and Achievement among East Asian Undergraduates. Technology and Arts Research Journal Sci. Technol. Arts Res. J, 9(1), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.20372/star.v9i1.04
  43. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2010). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. International Journal of Surgery, 8(5), 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2010.02.007
  44. Muassomah, M., Abdullah, I., Hasanah, U., Dalmeri, D., Sihombing, A. A., & Rodrigo, L. (2022). The Academic Demoralization of Students in Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.888393
  45. Novak, E., McDaniel, K., & Li, J. (2023). Factors that impact student frustration in digital learning environments. Computers and Education Open, 5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2023.100153
  46. Nurafifah, F. F., Sudrajat, A., & Akbar, Z. (2021). The Effect of Academic Motivation and Information Literature Self-Efficiency on Student Academic Achievement. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 8(8), 421. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v8i8.2952
  47. Okoye, K., Campos, E., Das, A., Chakraborty, V., Ghosh, M., Chakrabarti, A., & Hosseini, S. (2025). Impact of digitalized-education upon sustainable education and practice: A systematic review and meta-analysis of literature based on pre-intra-and-post pandemic and rural education development. In Sustainable Futures (Vol. 10). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sftr.2025.100851
  48. Park, G. P. (2023). Contributions of motivational components to L2 achievement through the mediation of learning strategies. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 20(1), 74–90. https://doi.org/10.56040/gipa2015
  49. Penzar, E. C., Shea, M., & Edwards, C. N. (2021). College Students’ Academic Achievement: Exploring the Role of Hope and Academic Self-Efficacy. https://idejournal.org/index.php/ide/article/view/243
  50. Pulkka, A. T., & Budlong, L. (2022). Associations Between Achievement Goal Orientations, Preferred Learning Practices, and Motivational Evaluations of Learning Environment Among Finnish Military Reservists. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.902478
  51. Rafiq, S., Iqbal, S., & Afzal, A. (2024). The Impact of Digital Tools and Online Learning Platforms on Higher Education Learning Outcomes. Research Journal (MRJ), 5. Article Retrieved from https://ojs.mrj.com.pk/index.php/MRJ/article/view/342
  52. Rahiem, M. D. H. (2020). The emergency remote learning experience of university students in Indonesia amidst the COVID-19 crisis. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(6), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.6.1
  53. Ramos Salazar, L., & Hayward, S. L. (2018). An Examination of College Students’ Problem-Solving Self-Efficacy, Academic Self-Efficacy, Motivation, Test Performance, and Expected Grade in Introductory-Level Economics Courses. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 16(3), 217–240. https://doi.org/10.1111/dsji.12161
  54. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1985). Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being Self-Determination Theory. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
  55. Sabanal, D., Gako, M., Dela Torre, H., Sabanal, J., So, R. B., Bacal, J. B., Corgio, L. D., Laroga, J. F., Camallere, C., Pagador, M. J., Barino, R. J., Mameng, K., Go, M., & Goles, N. (2024). Predictive model for college students’ performance in higher mathematics. Social Sciences and Humanities Open, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101134
  56. Saks, K. (2024). The effect of self-efficacy and self-set grade goals on academic outcomes. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1324007
  57. Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2020). Self-efficacy and human motivation. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190666453.013.3
  58. Sepehrian Azar, F. (2013). Self-efficacy, Achievement Motivation, and Academic Procrastination as Predictors of Academic Performance (Vol. 3, Issue 11). Article Retrieved from https://www.scitepress.org/publishedPapers/2017/70493/pdf/index.html
  59. Setiawan, H., Tampati, I. F., Putra, I. G. M., & Girinoto. (2024). Optimization of MLP-Regressor for Predicting Student’s Cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA). 2024 4th International Conference of Science and Information Technology in Smart Administration (ICSINTESA), 628–633. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICSINTESA62455.2024.10747977
  60. Shaona, L. (2025). The role of reading motivation and self-efficacy in enhancing EFL students’ reading achievement. Discover Education, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00933-5
  61. Shofiah, V., Taruna, R., & Asra, Y. K. (2023). Academic Self-Efficacy as A Mediator on The Relationship Between Academic Motivation and Academic Achievement of College Students During the Online Learning Period. International Journal of Islamic Educational Psychology, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.18196/ijiep.v4i1.18247
  62. Simões, S., Oliveira, T., & Nunes, C. (2022). Influence of computers in students’ academic achievement. Heliyon, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09004
  63. Stavropoulou, G., Daniilidou, A., & Nerantzaki, K. (2025). Exploring the Interplay of Motivation, Self-Efficacy, Critical Thinking, and Self-Regulation in Predicting Academic Achievement Among University Students. F1000Research, 14, 344. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.161821.1
  64. Stevens, T., Olivarez, A., Lan, W. Y., & Tallent-Runnels, M. K. (2004). Role of mathematics self-efficacy and motivation in mathematics performance across ethnicity. Journal of Educational Research, 97(4), 208–222. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.97.4.208-222
  65. Tan, C. Y., Hong, X., Gao, L., & Song, Q. (2025). Meta-analytical insights on school SES effects. In Educational Review (Vol. 77, Issue 1, pp. 274–302). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2023.2184329
  66. Tan, J., Li, J., & Yi, X. (2025). How Can General Self-Efficacy Facilitate Undergraduates’ Employability? A Multiple Mediation Model. Behavioral Sciences, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040514
  67. Taştan, S. B., Davoudi, S. M. M., Masalimova, A. R., Bersanov, A. S., Kurbanov, R. A., Boiarchuk, A. V., & Pavlushin, A. A. (2018). The impacts of teacher’s efficacy and motivation on student’s academic achievement in science education among secondary and high school students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 14(6), 2353–2366. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/89579
  68. Teng, M. F., & Yang, Z. (2023). Metacognition, motivation, self-efficacy belief, and English learning achievement in online learning: Longitudinal mediation modeling approach. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17(4), 778–794. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2144327
  69. Torun, E. D. (2020). Online Distance Learning in Higher Education: E-Learning Readiness as a Predictor of Academic Achievement. Open Praxis, 12(2), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.5944/openpraxis.12.2.1092
  70. Turner, E. A., Chandler, M., & Heffer, R. W. (n.d.). The Influence of Parenting Styles, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Efficacy on Academic Performance in College Students. In Development (Vol. 50, Issue 3). http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/csd/summary/v050/50.3.turner.html
  71. UNESCO. (2023). 2023 GEM Report Summary: Technology in education: A tool on whose terms? GEM Report UNESCO. https://doi.org/10.54676/HABJ1624
  72. Wing-Man Lau, R., Chan, D. K. S., Sun, F., & Cheng, G. H. L. (2023). Predictive validity of integrity tests for workplace deviance across industries and countries in the past 50 years: A meta-analytic review. In Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology (Vol. 17). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1177/18344909231171729
  73. Wu, H., Li, S., Zheng, J., & Guo, J. (2020). Medical students’ motivation and academic performance: the mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement. Medical Education Online, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1742964
  74. Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 23(5), 1382–1414. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0999-9
  75. Yang, G., Badri, M., Al Rashedi, A., & Almazroui, K. (2018). The role of reading motivation, self-efficacy, and home influence in students’ literacy achievement: a preliminary examination of fourth graders in Abu Dhabi. Large-Scale Assessments in Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-018-0063-0
  76. York, T. T., Gibson, C., & Rankin, S. (2015). Defining and Measuring Academic Success. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 20(5). 20(5). Article Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/pare/vol20/iss1/5/
  77. Yüner, B., & Bilgisi Öz, M. (2020). Investigation of the Relationship Between Academic Self-Efficacy, Academic Motivation and Success: The Case of Prospective Teachers * Akademik Öz yeterlik, Motivasyon ve Başarıları arasındaki İlişki: Öğretmen Adayları Örneği. https://doi.org/10.14812/cufej.698312
  78. Zhao, W. Q., & Ma, R. (2025). Investigating the relationship between goal orientation, self-efficacy, positive emotionality, and affective engagement among Chinese students. Acta Psychologica, 253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104735
  79. Zheng, L., Li, X., & Huang, R. (2020). The effect of social media use on learning engagement and academic performance: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 58(5), 936–956. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633120910792
  80. Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-Efficacy: An Essential Motive to Learn. In Handbook of Self-Regulation (pp. 82–110). Academic. Press. Article Retrieved from https://www.elsevier.com/books/handbook-of-self-regulation/zimmerman/978-0-12-109890-2

Downloads

Pdf

Statistic

Abstract Views
: 133 times
Pdf
: 25 times